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How To Store Number In Register In Mips

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Instruction set architecture

MIPS
Designer MIPS Technologies, Imagination Technologies
Bits 64-scrap (32 → 64)
Introduced 1985; 37 years ago  (1985)
Version MIPS32/64 Release half dozen (2014)
Design RISC
Type Register-Register
Encoding Fixed
Branching Compare and branch
Endianness Bi
Page size iv KB
Extensions MDMX, MIPS-3D
Open up Partly. The R12000 processor has been on the market for more than 20 years and and then cannot exist subject to patent claims. Therefore, the R12000 and older processors are fully open.
Registers
General purpose 32
Floating point 32

MIPS (Microprocessor without Interlocked Pipelined Stages)[one] is a family of reduced instruction gear up estimator (RISC) didactics set architectures (ISA)[two] : A-1 [three] : nineteen developed past MIPS Reckoner Systems, at present MIPS Technologies, based in the United States.

At that place are multiple versions of MIPS: including MIPS I, II, Three, Iv, and V; as well as v releases of MIPS32/64 (for 32- and 64-flake implementations, respectively). The early MIPS architectures were 32-scrap; 64-flake versions were developed subsequently. As of April 2017, the current version of MIPS is MIPS32/64 Release vi.[4] [five] MIPS32/64 primarily differs from MIPS I–Five by defining the privileged kernel mode System Command Coprocessor in add-on to the user mode architecture.

The MIPS architecture has several optional extensions. MIPS-3D which is a unproblematic fix of floating-point SIMD instructions dedicated to mutual 3D tasks,[six] MDMX (MaDMaX) which is a more extensive integer SIMD instruction prepare using the 64-bit floating-bespeak registers, MIPS16e which adds compression to the education stream to make programs have up less room,[vii] and MIPS MT, which adds multithreading capability.[8]

Computer compages courses in universities and technical schools oft report the MIPS architecture.[9] The compages greatly influenced later RISC architectures such as Alpha. In March 2021, MIPS announced that the development of the MIPS compages had concluded equally the company is making the transition to RISC-5.[10]

History [edit]

The first version of the MIPS architecture was designed by MIPS Figurer Systems for its R2000 microprocessor, the offset MIPS implementation. Both MIPS and the R2000 were introduced together in 1985.[ commendation needed ] When MIPS II was introduced, MIPS was renamed MIPS I to distinguish it from the new version.[three] : 32

MIPS Computer Systems' R6000 microprocessor (1989) was the start MIPS II implementation.[3] : viii Designed for servers, the R6000 was fabricated and sold by Bipolar Integrated Technology, but was a commercial failure. During the mid-1990s, many new 32-chip MIPS processors for embedded systems were MIPS Two implementations because the introduction of the 64-flake MIPS III architecture in 1991 left MIPS II as the newest 32-bit MIPS compages until MIPS32 was introduced in 1999.[iii] : 19

MIPS Calculator Systems' R4000 microprocessor (1991) was the starting time MIPS Three implementation. Information technology was designed for use in personal, workstation, and server computers. MIPS Computer Systems aggressively promoted the MIPS compages and R4000, establishing the Advanced Computing Surround (ACE) consortium to accelerate its Avant-garde RISC Calculating (ARC) standard, which aimed to institute MIPS as the dominant personal computing platform. ARC found little success in personal computers, but the R4000 (and the R4400 derivative) were widely used in workstation and server computers, especially by its largest user, Silicon Graphics. Other uses of the R4000 included high-end embedded systems and supercomputers. MIPS III was eventually implemented by a number of embedded microprocessors. Quantum Consequence Design's R4600 (1993) and its derivatives was widely used in high-end embedded systems and low-end workstations and servers. MIPS Technologies' R4200 (1994), was designed for embedded systems, laptop, and personal computers. A derivative, the R4300i, fabricated past NEC Electronics, was used in the Nintendo 64 game console. The Nintendo 64, along with the PlayStation, were among the highest volume users of MIPS architecture processors in the mid-1990s.

The starting time MIPS IV implementation was the MIPS Technologies R8000 microprocessor chipset (1994). The blueprint of the R8000 began at Silicon Graphics, Inc. and it was only used in high-end workstations and servers for scientific and technical applications where loftier performance on big floating-point workloads was important. Later implementations were the MIPS Technologies R10000 (1996) and the Quantum Effect Devices R5000 (1996) and RM7000 (1998). The R10000, fabricated and sold past NEC Electronics and Toshiba, and its derivatives were used past NEC, Pyramid Engineering science, Silicon Graphics, and Tandem Computers (among others) in workstations, servers, and supercomputers. The R5000 and R7000 found use in high-end embedded systems, personal computers, and low-end workstations and servers. A derivative of the R5000 from Toshiba, the R5900, was used in Sony Calculator Amusement'southward Emotion Engine, which powered its PlayStation 2 game console.

Announced on October 21, 1996, at the Microprocessor Forum 1996 alongside the MIPS Digital Media Extensions (MDMX) extension, MIPS V was designed to meliorate the operation of 3D graphics transformations.[eleven] In the mid-1990s, a major use of non-embedded MIPS microprocessors were graphics workstations from Silicon Graphics. MIPS 5 was completed by the integer-but MDMX extension to provide a complete arrangement for improving the performance of 3D graphics applications.[12] MIPS V implementations were never introduced. On May 12, 1997, Silicon Graphics announced the H1 ("Beast") and H2 ("Capitan") microprocessors. The former was to accept been the kickoff MIPS V implementation, and was due to be introduced in the showtime half of 1999.[thirteen] The H1 and H2 projects were later combined and eventually canceled in 1998. While there take not been any MIPS V implementations, MIPS64 Release ane (1999) was based on MIPS 5 and retains all of its features as an optional Coprocessor 1 (FPU) characteristic called Paired-Unmarried.

When MIPS Technologies was spun-out of Silicon Graphics in 1998, it refocused on the embedded marketplace. Through MIPS 5, each successive version was a strict superset of the previous version, simply this holding was found to be a problem,[ citation needed ] and the architecture definition was changed to define a 32-bit and a 64-chip architecture: MIPS32 and MIPS64. Both were introduced in 1999.[fourteen] MIPS32 is based on MIPS Ii with some additional features from MIPS III, MIPS 4, and MIPS V; MIPS64 is based on MIPS V.[xiv] NEC, Toshiba and SiByte (afterward acquired by Broadcom) each obtained licenses for MIPS64 as soon equally information technology was appear. Philips, LSI Logic, IDT, Raza Microelectronics, Inc., Cavium, Loongson Engineering science and Ingenic Semiconductor have since joined them. MIPS32/MIPS64 Release 5 was appear on Dec 6, 2012.[15] Release 4 was skipped because the number 4 is perceived every bit unlucky in many Asian cultures.[16]

In December 2018, Moving ridge Calculating, the new owner of the MIPS compages, announced that MIPS ISA would exist open-sourced in a plan dubbed the MIPS Open initiative.[17] The plan was intended to open up up access to the well-nigh recent versions of both the 32-scrap and 64-bit designs making them available without any licensing or royalty fees as well every bit granting participants licenses to existing MIPS patents.[18] [19] [20]

In March 2019, one version of the architecture was made available nether a royalty-free license,[21] but later that year the program was close downwards once more.[22]

In March 2021, Moving ridge Computing announced that the development of the MIPS architecture has ceased. The company has joined the RISC-V foundation and future processor designs volition be based on the RISC-V architecture.[23] [24] In spite of this, some licensees such every bit Longsoon keep with new extension of MIPS-compatible ISAs on their own.[25]

Pattern [edit]

MIPS is a modular architecture supporting upwards to 4 coprocessors (CP0/i/2/3). In MIPS terminology, CP0 is the System Control Coprocessor (an essential office of the processor that is implementation-defined in MIPS I–V), CP1 is an optional floating-point unit (FPU) and CP2/iii are optional implementation-divers coprocessors (MIPS 3 removed CP3 and reused its opcodes for other purposes). For example, in the PlayStation video game console, CP2 is the Geometry Transformation Engine (GTE), which accelerates the processing of geometry in 3D figurer graphics.

Versions [edit]

MIPS I [edit]

MIPS is a load/shop architecture (as well known every bit a register-annals architecture); except for the load/store instructions used to admission memory, all instructions operate on the registers.

Registers [edit]

MIPS I has xxx-ii 32-bit full general-purpose registers (GPR). Register $0 is hardwired to zero and writes to information technology are discarded. Register $31 is the link register. For integer multiplication and segmentation instructions, which run asynchronously from other instructions, a pair of 32-bit registers, How-do-you-do and LO, are provided. There is a small ready of instructions for copying data betwixt the general-purpose registers and the HI/LO registers.

The program counter has 32 $.25. The ii depression-order $.25 always contain zero since MIPS I instructions are 32 bits long and are aligned to their natural word boundaries.

Instruction formats [edit]

Instructions are divided into iii types: R (register), I (immediate), and J (spring). Every instruction starts with a half dozen-chip opcode. In improver to the opcode, R-type instructions specify three registers, a shift amount field, and a role field; I-blazon instructions specify two registers and a 16-bit immediate value; J-type instructions follow the opcode with a 26-bit jump target.[2] : A-174

The following are the iii formats used for the cadre instruction set:

Type -31-                                 format ($.25)                                 -0-
R opcode (6) rs (5) rt (five) rd (five) shamt (5) funct (6)
I opcode (six) rs (5) rt (5) immediate (16)
J opcode (6) address (26)

CPU instructions [edit]

MIPS I has instructions that load and store 8-bit bytes, xvi-chip halfwords, and 32-flake words. But one addressing mode is supported: base + displacement. Since MIPS I is a 32-chip architecture, loading quantities fewer than 32 bits requires the datum to exist either sign-extended or naught-extended to 32 bits. The load instructions suffixed by "unsigned" perform zippo extension; otherwise sign extension is performed. Load instructions source the base from the contents of a GPR (rs) and write the outcome to another GPR (rt). Store instructions source the base from the contents of a GPR (rs) and the store data from another GPR (rt). All load and shop instructions compute the memory accost past summing the base with the sign-extended 16-bit immediate. MIPS I requires all retentivity accesses to be aligned to their natural word boundaries, otherwise an exception is signaled. To back up efficient unaligned retention accesses, there are load/store give-and-take instructions suffixed by "left" or "right". All load instructions are followed past a load delay slot. The education in the load delay slot cannot use the data loaded by the load instruction. The load delay slot tin can be filled with an teaching that is non dependent on the load; a nop is substituted if such an instruction cannot be found.

MIPS I has instructions to perform addition and subtraction. These instructions source their operands from ii GPRs (rs and rt), and write the effect to a third GPR (rd). Alternatively, addition can source one of the operands from a 16-bit immediate (which is sign-extended to 32 bits). The instructions for add-on and subtraction have two variants: by default, an exception is signaled if the consequence overflows; instructions with the "unsigned" suffix do not bespeak an exception. The overflow check interprets the result equally a 32-bit two'south complement integer. MIPS I has instructions to perform bitwise logical AND, OR, XOR, and NOR. These instructions source their operands from 2 GPRs and write the result to a tertiary GPR. The AND, OR, and XOR instructions tin alternatively source one of the operands from a sixteen-bit immediate (which is zero-extended to 32 $.25). The Set on relation instructions write i or zero to the destination register if the specified relation is true or false. These instructions source their operands from two GPRs or 1 GPR and a 16-bit immediate (which is sign-extended to 32 bits), and write the result to a 3rd GPR. Past default, the operands are interpreted equally signed integers. The variants of these instructions that are suffixed with "unsigned" interpret the operands equally unsigned integers (fifty-fifty those that source an operand from the sign-extended 16-bit immediate).

The Load Immediate Upper education copies the 16-bit immediate into the high-order 16 bits of a GPR. It is used in conjunction with the Or Immediate instruction to load a 32-bit firsthand into a register.

MIPS I has instructions to perform left and right logical shifts and right arithmetic shifts. The operand is obtained from a GPR (rt), and the result is written to another GPR (rd). The shift distance is obtained from either a GPR (rs) or a 5-bit "shift amount" (the "sa" field).

MIPS I has instructions for signed and unsigned integer multiplication and division. These instructions source their operands from two GPRs and write their results to a pair of 32-bit registers called HI and LO, since they may execute separately from (and meantime with) the other CPU instructions. For multiplication, the high- and low-order halves of the 64-bit product is written to Howdy and LO (respectively). For division, the caliber is written to LO and the remainder to Hi. To access the results, a pair of instructions (Move from Howdy and Move from LO) is provided to copy the contents of How-do-you-do or LO to a GPR. These instructions are interlocked: reads of HI and LO exercise non continue past an unfinished arithmetic instruction that will write to HI and LO. Another pair of instructions (Move to How-do-you-do or Move to LO) copies the contents of a GPR to How-do-you-do and LO. These instructions are used to restore Hello and LO to their original land afterwards exception treatment. Instructions that read HI or LO must be separated by 2 instructions that do non write to Hullo or LO.

All MIPS I control catamenia instructions are followed by a branch filibuster slot. Unless the branch filibuster slot is filled by an instruction performing useful piece of work, an nop is substituted. MIPS I branch instructions compare the contents of a GPR (rs) confronting zero or some other GPR (rt) every bit signed integers and branch if the specified condition is truthful. Control is transferred to the accost computed by shifting the 16-bit offset left by 2 $.25, sign-extending the 18-flake result, and adding the 32-bit sign-extended effect to the sum of the plan counter (instruction address) and viii10. Jumps take two versions: accented and register-indirect. Absolute jumps ("Leap" and "Bound and Link") compute the accost control is transferred to by shifting the 26-bit instr_index left past 2 bits and concatenating the 28-bit result with the four high-social club bits of the address of the instruction in the branch filibuster slot. Register-indirect jumps transfer control to the instruction at the address sourced from a GPR (rs). The accost sourced from the GPR must exist word-aligned, else an exception is signaled after the instruction in the co-operative filibuster slot is executed. Co-operative and jump instructions that link (except for "Bound and Link Register") save the return accost to GPR 31. The "Spring and Link Register" instruction permits the return address to be saved to whatsoever writable GPR.

MIPS I has two instructions for software to signal an exception: Arrangement Call and Breakpoint. System Phone call is used past user mode software to make kernel calls; and Breakpoint is used to transfer command to a debugger via the kernel's exception handler. Both instructions have a 20-fleck Code field that tin can contain operating environment-specific data for the exception handler.

MIPS has 32 floating-bespeak registers. Two registers are paired for double precision numbers. Odd numbered registers cannot be used for arithmetics or branching, just as part of a double precision annals pair, resulting in 16 usable registers for most instructions (moves/copies and loads/stores were not affected).

Single precision is denoted by the .s suffix, while double precision is denoted by the .d suffix.

MIPS Ii [edit]

MIPS II removed the load delay slot[iii] : 41 and added several sets of instructions. For shared-retention multiprocessing, the Synchronize Shared Retention, Load Linked Give-and-take, and Shop Conditional Word instructions were added. A set of Trap-on-Condition instructions were added. These instructions caused an exception if the evaluated condition is true. All existing branch instructions were given branch-likely versions that executed the instruction in the branch filibuster slot only if the branch is taken.[3] : 40 These instructions ameliorate performance in sure cases by allowing useful instructions to fill the branch delay slot.[three] : 212 Doubleword load and store instructions for COP1–3 were added. Consistent with other memory admission instructions, these loads and stores required the doubleword to exist naturally aligned.

The instruction set for the floating point coprocessor also had several instructions added to it. An IEEE 754-compliant floating-point square root instruction was added. It supported both single- and double-precision operands. A prepare of instructions that converted single- and double-precision floating-point numbers to 32-fleck words were added. These complemented the existing conversion instructions past allowing the IEEE rounding mode to be specified by the instruction instead of the Floating Indicate Control and Status Annals.

MIPS III [edit]

MIPS Three is a backwards-uniform extension of MIPS II that added support for 64-bit retentivity addressing and integer operations. The 64-fleck data blazon is chosen a doubleword, and MIPS Three extended the general-purpose registers, Howdy/LO registers, and plan counter to 64 bits to support it. New instructions were added to load and store doublewords, to perform integer addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and shift operations on them, and to move doubleword between the GPRs and Hullo/LO registers. Existing instructions originally divers to operate on 32-bit words were redefined, where necessary, to sign-extend the 32-flake results to allow words and doublewords to exist treated identically by virtually instructions. Amidst those instructions redefined was Load Word. In MIPS Three information technology sign-extends words to 64 bits. To complement Load Word, a version that zero-extends was added.

The R education format's inability to specify the full shift altitude for 64-bit shifts (its v-fleck shift corporeality field is too narrow to specify the shift distance for doublewords) required MIPS III to provide three 64-flake versions of each MIPS I shift instruction. The first version is a 64-flake version of the original shift instructions, used to specify constant shift distances of 0–31 bits. The second version is similar to the first, merely adds 32ten the shift amount field's value and then that abiding shift distances of 32–64 $.25 tin can be specified. The third version obtains the shift distance from the six low-order $.25 of a GPR.

MIPS III added a supervisor privilege level in between the existing kernel and user privilege levels. This feature only affected the implementation-defined Organisation Control Processor (Coprocessor 0).

MIPS III removed the Coprocessor three (CP3) support instructions, and reused its opcodes for the new doubleword instructions. The remaining coprocessors gained instructions to move doublewords between coprocessor registers and the GPRs. The floating full general registers (FGRs) were extended to 64 bits and the requirement for instructions to apply even-numbered annals but was removed. This is incompatible with before versions of the architecture; a bit in the floating-point control/status register is used to operate the MIPS III floating-indicate unit (FPU) in a MIPS I- and Ii-uniform mode. The floating-point control registers were not extended for compatibility. The only new floating-betoken instructions added were those to copy doublewords betwixt the CPU and FPU catechumen single- and double-precision floating-signal numbers into doubleword integers and vice versa.

MIPS 4 [edit]

MIPS IV is the 4th version of the architecture. Information technology is a superset of MIPS III and is compatible with all existing versions of MIPS. MIPS IV was designed to mainly better floating-point (FP) performance. To improve access to operands, an indexed addressing mode (base + index, both sourced from GPRs) for FP loads and stores was added, as were prefetch instructions for performing memory prefetching and specifying cache hints (these supported both the base of operations + offset and base + index addressing modes).

MIPS IV added several features to ameliorate instruction-level parallelism. To alleviate the clogging caused by a single condition bit, vii condition lawmaking bits were added to the floating-point control and status register, bringing the full to eight. FP comparison and branch instructions were redefined so they could specify which condition fleck was written or read (respectively); and the filibuster slot in between an FP branch that read the condition bit written to by a prior FP comparison was removed. Back up for partial predication was added in the form of conditional movement instructions for both GPRs and FPRs; and an implementation could choose between having precise or imprecise exceptions for IEEE 754 traps.

MIPS IV added several new FP arithmetic instructions for both single- and double-precision FPNs: fused-multiply add or subtract, reciprocal, and reciprocal foursquare-root. The FP fused-multiply add or subtract instructions perform either one or ii roundings (information technology is implementation-defined), to exceed or come across IEEE 754 accuracy requirements (respectively). The FP reciprocal and reciprocal square-root instructions do non comply with IEEE 754 accuracy requirements, and produce results that differ from the required accuracy by 1 or two units of final place (it is implementation defined). These instructions serve applications where pedagogy latency is more than important than accuracy.

MIPS 5 [edit]

MIPS V added a new data type, the Paired Unmarried (PS), which consisted of two single-precision (32-fleck) floating-indicate numbers stored in the existing 64-bit floating-point registers. Variants of existing floating-indicate instructions for arithmetic, compare and conditional move were added to operate on this data type in a SIMD fashion. New instructions were added for loading, rearranging and converting PS information.[3] : 426–429 It was the first educational activity set to exploit floating-betoken SIMD with existing resources.[12]

MIPS32/MIPS64 [edit]

The kickoff release of MIPS32, based on MIPS II, added provisional moves, prefetch instructions, and other features from the R4000 and R5000 families of 64-bit processors.[xiv] The first release of MIPS64 adds a MIPS32 mode to run 32-scrap code.[14] The MUL and MADD (multiply-add) instructions, previously available in some implementations, were added to the MIPS32 and MIPS64 specifications, every bit were cache control instructions.[14]

MIPS32/MIPS64 Release 6 in 2014 added the following:[26]

  • a new family of branches with no delay slot:
    • unconditional branches (BC) and co-operative-and-link (BALC) with a 26-bit start,
    • conditional co-operative on zero/non-nada with a 21-bit get-go,
    • total gear up of signed and unsigned conditional branches compare between 2 registers (e.g. BGTUC) or a register against zero (e.g. BGTZC),
    • full set of branch-and-link which compare a register against zero (e.g. BGTZALC).
  • index jump instructions with no delay slot designed to support large absolute addresses.
  • instructions to load sixteen-chip immediates at chip position 16, 32 or 48, allowing to easily generate large constants.
  • PC-relative load instructions, equally well as address generation with big (PC-relative) offsets.
  • bit-reversal and byte-alignment instructions (previously just available with the DSP extension).
  • multiply and divide instructions redefined and so that they use a single annals for their consequence).
  • instructions generating truth values now generate all zeroes or all ones instead of simply clearing/setting the 0-fleck,
  • instructions using a truth value at present simply interpret all-zeroes as false instead of just looking at the 0-chip.

Removed infrequently used instructions:

  • some conditional moves
  • branch likely instructions (deprecated in previous releases).
  • integer overflow trapping instructions with 16-bit immediate
  • integer accumulator instructions (together HI/LO registers, moved to the DSP Application-Specific Extension)
  • unaligned load instructions (LWL and LWR), (requiring that nearly ordinary loads and stores support misaligned admission, possibly via trapping and with the addition of a new instruction (BALIGN))

Reorganized the instruction encoding, freeing space for futurity expansions.

microMIPS [edit]

The microMIPS32/64 architectures are supersets of the MIPS32 and MIPS64 architectures (respectively) designed to replace the MIPS16e ASE. A disadvantage of MIPS16e is that it requires a fashion switch before any of its xvi-chip instructions tin be processed. microMIPS adds versions of the most-frequently used 32-bit instructions that are encoded as 16-scrap instructions. This allows programs to intermix sixteen- and 32-bit instructions without having to switch modes. microMIPS was introduced aslope of MIPS32/64 Release iii, and each subsequent release of MIPS32/64 has a corresponding microMIPS32/64 version. A processor may implement microMIPS32/64 or both microMIPS32/64 and its corresponding MIPS32/64 subset. Starting with MIPS32/64 Release 6, support for MIPS16e ended, and microMIPS is the merely class of lawmaking pinch in MIPS.

Application-specific extensions [edit]

The base of operations MIPS32 and MIPS64 architectures can be supplemented with a number of optional architectural extensions, which are collectively referred to as application-specific extensions (ASEs). These ASEs provide features that meliorate the efficiency and functioning of sure workloads, such as digital signal processing.

MIPS MCU
Enhancements for microcontroller applications. The MCU ASE (application-specific extension) has been developed to extend the interrupt controller support, reduce the interrupt latency and heighten the I/O peripheral control role typically required in microcontroller system designs.
  • Divide priority and vector generation
  • Supports up to 256 interrupts in EIC (External Interrupt Controller) mode and eight hardware interrupt pins
  • Provides sixteen-bit vector outset accost
  • Pre-fetching of the interrupt exception vector
  • Automatic Interrupt Prologue – adds hardware to save and update system status before the interrupt handling routine
  • Automatic Interrupt Epilogue – restores the system state previously stored in the stack for returning from the interrupt.
  • Interrupt Chaining – supports the service of pending interrupts without the need to leave the initial interrupt routine, saving the cycles required to store and restore multiple agile interrupts
  • Supports speculative pre-fetching of the interrupt vector address. Reduces the number of interrupt service cycles by overlapping memory accesses with pipeline flushes and exception prioritization
  • Includes atomic bit set/clear instructions which enables bits within an I/O register that are normally used to monitor or command external peripheral functions to be modified without intermission, ensuring the activeness is performed securely.
MIPS16
MIPS16 is an Application-Specific Extension for MIPS I through to Five designed by LSI Logic and MIPS Technologies, announced on October 21, 1996, alongside its first implementation, the LSI Logic TinyRISC processor.[27] MIPS16 was subsequently licensed by NEC Electronics, Philips Semiconductors, and Toshiba (among others); and implemented equally an extension to the MIPS I, Ii, an 3 architectures. MIPS16 decreases the size of application by up to 40% past using xvi-bit instructions instead of 32-bit instructions' and also improves power efficiency, the instruction cache hit rate, and is equivalent in operation to its base of operations architecture.[28] It is supported by hardware and software evolution tools from MIPS Technologies and other providers. MIPS16e is an improved version of MIPS16 first supported by MIPS32 and MIPS64 Release 1. MIPS16e2 is an improved version of MIPS16 that is supported by MIPS32 and MIPS64 (upwards to Release v). Release half dozen replaced information technology with microMIPS.
MIPS Digital Signal Processing (DSP)
The DSP ASE is an optional extension to the MIPS32/MIPS64 Release 2 and newer education sets which can be used to accelerate a large range of "media" computations—particularly audio and video. The DSP module comprises a set of instructions and state in the integer pipeline and requires minimal additional logic to implement in MIPS processor cores. Revision 2 of the ASE was introduced in the second half of 2006. This revision adds extra instructions to the original ASE, but is otherwise backwards-compatible with information technology.[29] Different the bulk of the MIPS architecture, it's a adequately irregular set of operations, many called for a particular relevance to some central algorithm. Its principal novel features (vs original MIPS32):[xxx]
  • Saturating arithmetic (when a calculation overflows, deliver the representable number closest to the non-overflowed answer).
  • Fixed-point arithmetic on signed 32- and xvi-bit fixed-point fractions with a range of -1 to +1 (these are widely called "Q31" and "Q15").
  • The existing integer multiplication and multiply-accumulate instructions, which deliver results into a double-size accumulator (called "hi/lo" and 64 bits on MIPS32 CPUs). The DSP ASE adds iii more accumulators, and some unlike flavours of multiply-accumulate.
  • SIMD instructions operating on 4 x unsigned bytes or 2 x 16-bit values packed into a 32-flake register (the 64-bit variant of the DSP ASE supports larger vectors, too).
  • SIMD operations are bones arithmetic, shifts and some multiply-accrue type operations.
MIPS SIMD compages (MSA)
Pedagogy set extensions designed to accelerate multimedia.
  • 32 vector registers of sixteen x 8-fleck, eight x 16-bit, 4 x 32-bit, and two ten 64 chip vector elements
  • Efficient vector parallel arithmetic operations on integer, fixed-point and floating-point data
  • Operations on absolute value operands
  • Rounding and saturation options available
  • Full precision multiply and multiply-add
  • Conversions betwixt integer, floating-point, and fixed-point data
  • Complete set of vector-level compare and branch instructions with no condition flag
  • Vector (1D) and array (2nd) shuffle operations
  • Typed load and store instructions for endian-independent functioning
  • IEEE Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic 754-2008 compliant
  • Element precise floating-point exception signaling
  • Pre-divers scalable extensions for fries with more gates/transistors
  • Accelerates compute-intensive applications in conjunction with leveraging generic compiler support
  • Software-programmable solution for consumer electronics applications or functions not covered past dedicated hardware
  • Emerging data mining, feature extraction, image and video processing, and human-computer interaction applications
  • High-performance scientific calculating
MIPS virtualization
Hardware supported virtualization technology.
MIPS multi-threading
Each multi-threaded MIPS cadre can back up upwardly to ii VPEs (Virtual Processing Elements) which share a unmarried pipeline besides every bit other hardware resource. Yet, since each VPE includes a complete copy of the processor state as seen past the software system, each VPE appears as a consummate standalone processor to an SMP Linux operating system. For more fine-grained thread processing applications, each VPE is capable of supporting up to nine TCs allocated across two VPEs. The TCs share a common execution unit but each has its ain programme counter and core annals files so that each can handle a thread from the software. The MIPS MT architecture besides allows the allocation of processor cycles to threads, and sets the relative thread priorities with an optional Quality of Service (QoS) director block. This enables two prioritization mechanisms that determine the menstruum of information beyond the bus. The get-go machinery allows the user to prioritize one thread over some other. The 2nd mechanism is used to allocate a specified ratio of the cycles to specific threads over time. The combined utilize of both mechanisms allows effective allocation of bandwidth to the set of threads, and improve command of latencies. In real-time systems, system-level determinism is very disquisitional, and the QoS block facilitates improvement of the predictability of a system. Hardware designers of advanced systems may replace the standard QoS block provided past MIPS Technologies with one that is specifically tuned for their application.
SmartMIPS
SmartMIPS is an Application-Specific Extension (ASE) designed by Gemplus International and MIPS Technologies to improve performance and reduce retentiveness consumption for smart card software. It is supported by MIPS32 merely, since smart cards practice not require the capabilities of MIPS64 processors. Few smart cards employ SmartMIPS.
MIPS Digital Media eXtension (MDMX)
Multimedia application accelerations that were mutual in the 1990s on RISC and CISC systems.
MIPS-3D
Additional instructions for improving the performance of 3D graphics applications

Calling conventions [edit]

MIPS has had several calling conventions, especially on the 32-bit platform.

The O32 ABI is the most commonly-used ABI, owing to its status as the original System Five ABI for MIPS.[31] [32] It is strictly stack-based, with just four registers $a0-$a3 available to laissez passer arguments. Space on the stack is reserved in example the callee needs to salvage its arguments, but the registers are not stored there by the caller. The return value is stored in register $v0; a second return value may exist stored in $v1. The ABI took shape in 1990 and was last updated in 1994. This perceived slowness, forth with an antique floating-bespeak model with just sixteen registers, has encouraged the proliferation of many other calling conventions. Information technology is only defined for 32-bit MIPS, but GCC has created a 64-bit variation called O64.[33]

For 64-scrap, the N64 ABI by Silicon Graphics is most commonly used. The most of import improvement is that eight registers are at present available for statement passing; it too increases the number of floating-point registers to 32. There is also an ILP32 version chosen N32, which uses 32-bit pointers for smaller code, analogous to the x32 ABI. Both run under the 64-bit mode of the CPU.[33] The N32 and N64 ABIs pass the first eight arguments to a part in the registers $a0-$a7; subsequent arguments are passed on the stack. The render value (or a arrow to it) is stored in the registers $v0; a 2nd return value may be stored in $v1. In both the N32 and N64 ABIs all registers are considered to be 64-bits wide.

A few attempts have been made to supersede O32 with a 32-bit ABI that resembles N32 more. A 1995 conference came upwardly with MIPS EABI, for which the 32-bit version was quite similar.[34] EABI inspired MIPS Technologies to propose a more radical "NUBI" ABI additionally reuse statement registers for the return value.[35] MIPS EABI is supported past GCC but non LLVM, and neither supports NUBI.

For all of O32 and N32/N64, the return address is stored in a $ra register. This is automatically ready with the apply of the JAL (jump and link) or JALR (leap and link annals) instructions. The function prologue of a (non-foliage) MIPS subroutine pushes the return accost (in $ra) to the stack.[36] [37]

On both O32 and N32/N64 the stack grows downwards, but the N32/N64 ABIs require 64-fleck alignment for all stack entries. The frame pointer ($30) is optional and in practice rarely used except when the stack allocation in a office is determined at runtime, for instance, by calling alloca().

For N32 and N64, the render accost is typically stored 8 bytes before the stack pointer although this may be optional.

For the N32 and N64 ABIs, a office must preserve the $s0-$s7 registers, the global pointer ($gp or $28), the stack pointer ($sp or $29) and the frame pointer ($30). The O32 ABI is the aforementioned except the calling office is required to save the $gp register instead of the called role.

For multi-threaded code, the thread local storage arrow is typically stored in special hardware register $29 and is accessed by using the mfhw (motility from hardware) didactics. At least one vendor is known to store this information in the $k0 register which is normally reserved for kernel use, but this is not standard.

The $k0 and $k1 registers ($26–$27) are reserved for kernel use and should not be used by applications since these registers tin can be changed at any fourth dimension by the kernel due to interrupts, context switches or other events.

Registers for O32 calling convention
Name Number Utilize Callee must preserve?
$zero $0 abiding 0 N/A
$at $i assembler temporary No
$v0–$v1 $2–$3 values for role returns and expression evaluation No
$a0–$a3 $four–$vii function arguments No
$t0–$t7 $8–$15 temporaries No
$s0–$s7 $sixteen–$23 saved temporaries Yes
$t8–$t9 $24–$25 temporaries No
$k0–$k1 $26–$27 reserved for Os kernel N/A
$gp $28 global arrow Yes (except Movie code)
$sp $29 stack pointer Yes
$fp $30 frame pointer Yes
$ra $31 return accost N/A
Registers for N32 and N64 calling conventions[38]
Name Number Use Callee must preserve?
$zero $0 constant 0 N/A
$at $1 assembler temporary No
$v0–$v1 $2–$3 values for function returns and expression evaluation No
$a0–$a7 $4–$11 function arguments No
$t4–$t7 $12–$fifteen temporaries No
$s0–$s7 $xvi–$23 saved temporaries Yes
$t8–$t9 $24–$25 temporaries No
$k0–$k1 $26–$27 reserved for Bone kernel Northward/A
$gp $28 global arrow Yeah
$sp $29 stack pointer Yes
$s8 $30 frame pointer Yes
$ra $31 return address N/A

Registers that are preserved across a call are registers that (by convention) will not exist changed by a arrangement call or procedure (part) phone call. For instance, $s-registers must be saved to the stack by a procedure that needs to employ them, and $sp and $fp are always incremented by constants, and decremented dorsum after the procedure is done with them (and the retentiveness they indicate to). By dissimilarity, $ra is changed automatically by any normal function call (ones that use jal), and $t-registers must be saved by the program before any procedure call (if the program needs the values within them after the call).

The userspace calling convention of position-independent code on Linux additionally requires that when a function is called the $t9 register must contain the address of that role.[39] This convention dates back to the System V ABI supplement for MIPS.[forty]

Uses [edit]

MIPS processors are used in embedded systems such as residential gateways and routers. Originally, MIPS was designed for full general-purpose computing. During the 1980s and 1990s, MIPS processors for personal, workstation, and server computers were used by many companies such as Digital Equipment Corporation, MIPS Figurer Systems, NEC, Pyramid Technology, SiCortex, Siemens Nixdorf, Silicon Graphics, and Tandem Computers.

Historically, video game consoles such as the Nintendo 64, Sony PlayStation, PlayStation ii, and PlayStation Portable used MIPS processors. MIPS processors also used to be popular in supercomputers during the 1990s, but all such systems have dropped off the TOP500 listing. These uses were complemented by embedded applications at get-go, just during the 1990s, MIPS became a major presence in the embedded processor market place, and by the 2000s, almost MIPS processors were for these applications.

In the mid- to late-1990s, information technology was estimated that one in three RISC microprocessors produced was a MIPS processor.[41]

By the late 2010s, MIPS machines were still ordinarily used in embedded markets, including automotive, wireless router, LTE modems (mainly via MediaTek), and microcontrollers (for example the Microchip Technology PIC32M). They accept mostly faded out of the personal, server, and application space.

Simulators [edit]

Open Virtual Platforms (OVP)[42] includes the freely available for non-commercial use simulator OVPsim, a library of models of processors, peripherals and platforms, and APIs which enable users to develop their own models. The models in the library are open up source, written in C, and include the MIPS 4K, 24K, 34K, 74K, 1004K, 1074K, M14K, microAptiv, interAptiv, proAptiv 32-fleck cores and the MIPS 64-scrap 5K range of cores. These models are created and maintained by Imperas[43] and in partnership with MIPS Technologies have been tested and assigned the MIPS-Verified marker. Sample MIPS-based platforms include both bare metal environments and platforms for booting unmodified Linux binary images. These platforms–emulators are bachelor equally source or binaries and are fast, gratis for non-commercial usage, and are easy to employ. OVPsim is developed and maintained by Imperas and is very fast (hundreds of million of instructions per second), and built to handle multicore homogeneous and heterogeneous architectures and systems.

There is a freely bachelor MIPS32 simulator (earlier versions false just the R2000/R3000) chosen SPIM for use in education. EduMIPS64[44] is a GPL graphical cantankerous-platform MIPS64 CPU simulator, written in Coffee/Swing. It supports a broad subset of the MIPS64 ISA and allows the user to graphically see what happens in the pipeline when an assembly program is run past the CPU.

MARS[45] is another GUI-based MIPS emulator designed for employ in education, specifically for utilize with Hennessy'south Calculator Organization and Design.

WebMIPS[46] is a browser-based MIPS simulator with visual representation of a generic, pipelined processor. This simulator is quite useful for register tracking during footstep by footstep execution.

QtMips[47] [48] [49] provides unproblematic 5-stages pipeline visualization besides every bit cache principle visualization for basic computer architectures courses. Windows, Linux, macOS and online version is available.

More advanced gratuitous emulators are available from the GXemul (formerly known as the mips64emul project) and QEMU projects. These emulate the various MIPS III and Iv microprocessors in addition to entire computer systems which use them.

Commercial simulators are bachelor particularly for the embedded employ of MIPS processors, for example Wind River Simics (MIPS 4Kc and 5Kc, PMC RM9000, QED RM7000, Broadcom/Netlogic ec4400, Cavium Octeon I), Imperas (all MIPS32 and MIPS64 cores), VaST Systems (R3000, R4000), and CoWare (the MIPS4KE, MIPS24K, MIPS25Kf and MIPS34K).

The Creator simulator[l] [51] [52]is portable and allows the user to acquire various assembly languages of different processors (Creator has examples with an implementation of MIPS32 and RISC-V instructions).

WepSIM[53] is a browser-based simulator where a subset of MIPS instructions are micro-programmed. This simulator is very useful in order to learn how a CPU works (microprogramming, MIPS routines, traps, interruptions, arrangement calls, etc.).

Run into also [edit]

  • DLX
  • Listing of MIPS architecture processors
  • MIPS architecture processors
  • Pipeline (calculating)
  • Prpl Foundation

References [edit]

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Further reading [edit]

  • Farquhar, Erin; Philip Bunce (1994). MIPS Programmer's Handbook. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. ISBN1-55860-297-6.
  • Patterson, David A; John 50. Hennessy (2004). Computer Arrangement and Blueprint: The Hardware/Software Interface . Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. ISBN1-55860-604-1.
  • Sweetman, Dominic (1999). See MIPS Run. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. ISBNone-55860-410-3.
  • Sweetman, Dominic (2007). See MIPS Run, 2nd edition. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. ISBN978-0-12-088421-half-dozen.

External links [edit]

  • MIPS Processors
  • MIPS Architecture history diagram at the Wayback Automobile (archived 2013-05-xxx)
  • Online MIPS emulator
  • MIPS Instructions - MIPS Educational activity Set up

How To Store Number In Register In Mips,

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIPS_architecture

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